Why Did England Become a Monarchy Again

1660 restoration of the monarchy in the British Isles

This article is about an event and menstruation in the history of England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. For other uses, see Restoration (disambiguation).

Stuart Restoration
1660 – 1688 (1714)
King Charles Ii in coronation robes by John Michael Wright
Preceded by	Interregnum
Followed past	Georgian era
Monarch(s)	Charles II James 2 William 3 Mary 2 Anne
Leader(s)	Thomas Parker

The Restoration of the Stuart monarchy in the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Republic of ireland took identify in 1660 when King Charles Two returned from exile in continental Europe. The preceding menstruation of the Protectorate and the ceremonious wars came to be known as the Interregnum (1649–1660).

The term Restoration is likewise used to draw the flow of several years after, in which a new political settlement was established.^[1] It is very often used to comprehend the whole reign of King Charles II (1660–1685) and often the brief reign of his younger blood brother King James 2 (1685–1688).^[ii] In certain contexts it may be used to cover the whole period of the later Stuart monarchs every bit far as the death of Queen Anne and the accession of the Hanoverian King George I in 1714.^[three] For example, Restoration comedy typically encompasses works written as late equally 1710.

The Protectorate [edit]

Afterwards Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector from 1658 to 1659, ceded power to the Rump Parliament, Charles Fleetwood and John Lambert then dominated government for a year. On 20 Oct 1659 George Monck, the governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, marched s with his army from Scotland to oppose Fleetwood and Lambert. Lambert's regular army began to desert him, and he returned to London virtually alone whilst Monck marched to London unopposed. The Presbyterian members, excluded in Pride'southward Purge of 1648, were recalled, and on 24 Dec the regular army restored the Long Parliament.^[4]

Fleetwood was deprived of his command and ordered to appear earlier Parliament to reply for his acquit. On iii March 1660, Lambert was sent to the Tower of London, from which he escaped a month later. He tried to rekindle the civil war in favour of the Democracy by issuing a proclamation calling on all supporters of the "Good Old Crusade" to rally on the battlefield of Edgehill, only he was recaptured by Colonel Richard Ingoldsby, a participant in the regicide of Charles I who hoped to win a pardon by handing Lambert over to the new authorities.^[4] Lambert was incarcerated and died in custody in 1684 and Ingoldsby was pardoned.^[5]

"The restoration was not what George Monck, as an apparent engineer of the Restoration, had intended – if indeed he knew what he intended, for in Clarendon's sardonic words; 'the whole car was infinitely above his force ... and it is celebrity enough to his memory that he was instrumental in bringing those things to pass which he had neither wisdom to foresee, nor courage to attempt, nor understanding to contrive'".^[half-dozen]

Restoration of Charles 2 [edit]

The deviation of Charles Two from Scheveningen (1660).

On 4 April 1660, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, in which he made several promises in relation to the reclamation of the crown of England. Whilst he did this, Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the kickoff time on 25 Apr. On eight May it proclaimed that King Charles 2 had been the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I on 30 January 1649.^[7] Historian Tim Harris describes it: "Constitutionally, it was equally if the last nineteen years had never happened."^[8]

Charles returned from exile, leaving the Hague on 23 May and landing at Dover on 25 May.^[9] He entered London on 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday. To celebrate His Majesty's Render to his Parliament, 29 May was fabricated a public holiday, popularly known equally Oak Apple tree Twenty-four hours.^[x] He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661.^[nine]

Some contemporaries described the Restoration equally "a divinely ordained phenomenon". The sudden and unexpected deliverance from political anarchy was interpreted equally a restoration of the natural and divine order.^[11] The Condescending Parliament convened for the showtime time on eight May 1661, and information technology would suffer for over 17 years, finally being dissolved on 24 January 1679. Like its predecessor, information technology was overwhelmingly Royalist. It is also known as the Pensionary Parliament for the many pensions information technology granted to adherents of the King.^[12]

The leading political figure at the beginning of the Restoration was Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon. It was the "skill and wisdom of Clarendon" which had "fabricated the Restoration unconditional".^[13]

Many Royalist exiles returned and were rewarded. Prince Rupert of the Rhine returned to the service of England, became a member of the privy council, and was provided with an annuity. George Goring, 1st Earl of Norwich, returned to be the Captain of the King's guard and received a pension. Marmaduke Langdale returned and was fabricated "Baron Langdale". William Cavendish, Marquess of Newcastle, returned and was able to regain the greater office of his estates. He was invested in 1666 with the Order of the Garter (which had been bestowed upon him in 1650), and was advanced to a dukedom on xvi March 1665.^[xiv]

England and Wales [edit]

Republic regicides and rebels [edit]

Thomas Harrison, the first person institute guilty of regicide during the Restoration

The Indemnity and Oblivion Act, which became law on 29 August 1660, pardoned all past treason against the crown, simply specifically excluded those involved in the trial and execution of Charles I. 30-1 of the 59 commissioners (judges) who had signed the death warrant in 1649 were living. The regicides were hunted downwards; some escaped but nearly were plant and put on trial. Three escaped to the American colonies. New Haven, Connecticut, secretly harboured Edward Whalley, William Goffe and John Dixwell, and afterwards American independence named streets afterward them to honour them as forefathers of the American Revolution.^[fifteen]

In the ensuing trials, twelve were condemned to death. 5th Monarchist Thomas Harrison, the first person found guilty of regicide, who had been the seventeenth of the 59 commissioners to sign the death warrant, was the commencement regicide to be hanged, drawn and quartered because he was considered by the new government yet to correspond a real threat to the re-established order. In October 1660, at Charing Cross or Tyburn, London, ten were publicly hanged, drawn and quartered: Thomas Harrison, John Jones, Adrian Scrope, John Carew, Thomas Scot, and Gregory Clement, who had signed the king'southward death warrant; the preacher Hugh Peters; Francis Hacker and Daniel Axtell, who allowable the guards at the male monarch's trial and execution; and John Cooke, the solicitor who directed the prosecution. The 10 judges who were on the panel but did not sign the death warrant were also convicted.^[16]

Oliver Cromwell, Henry Ireton, Gauge Thomas Pride, and Judge John Bradshaw were posthumously attainted for high treason. Because Parliament is a court, the highest in the land, a bill of attainder is a legislative human activity declaring a person guilty of treason or felony, in dissimilarity to the regular judicial procedure of trial and confidence. In January 1661, the corpses of Cromwell, Ireton and Bradshaw were exhumed and hanged in bondage at Tyburn.^[17]

In 1661 John Okey, one of the regicides who signed the death warrant of Charles I, was brought back from Holland along with Miles Corbet, friend and lawyer to Cromwell, and John Barkstead, one-time lawman of the Tower of London. They were all imprisoned in the Tower. From at that place they were taken to Tyburn and hanged, drawn and quartered on xix Apr 1662. A farther 19 regicides were imprisoned for life.

John Lambert was not in London for the trial of Charles I. At the Restoration, he was found guilty of high treason and remained in custody in Guernsey for the rest of his life. Henry Vane the Younger served on the Council of State during the Interregnum fifty-fifty though he refused to have the oath which expressed approbation (approval) of the Rex's execution. At the Restoration, after much argue in Parliament, he was exempted from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act. In 1662 he was tried for high treason, constitute guilty and beheaded on Tower Hill on 14 June 1662.

Regrant of sure Commonwealth titles [edit]

The Instrument of Government, The Protectorate'southward written constitutions, gave to the Lord Protector the Male monarch's power to grant titles of honour. Over 30 new knighthoods were granted under the Protectorate. These knighthoods passed into oblivion upon the Restoration of Charles II, nonetheless many were regranted by the restored King.

Of the eleven Protectorate baronetcies, 2 had been previously granted by Charles I during the Civil War – but under Republic legislation they were not recognised under the Protectorate (hence the Lord Protector'due south regranting of them), however when that legislation passed into oblivion these 2 baronets were entitled to utilise the baronetcies granted by Charles I – and Charles 2 regranted four more. Only one now continues: Richard Thomas Willy, 14th baronet, is the straight successor of Griffith Williams. Of the remaining Protectorate baronets one, William Ellis, was granted a knighthood by Charles II.

Edmund Dunch was created Baron Burnell of East Wittenham in April 1658, merely this barony was not regranted. The male line failed in 1719 with the decease of his grandson, also Edmund Dunch, and so no ane can lay claim to the title.

The one hereditary viscountcy Cromwell created for certain,^[a] (making Charles Howard Viscount Howard of Morpeth and Businesswoman Gilsland) continues to this day. In April 1661, Howard was created Earl of Carlisle, Viscount Howard of Morpeth, and Baron Dacre of Gillesland. The present Earl is a direct descendant of this Cromwellian creation and Restoration recreation.

Venner rebellion (1661) [edit]

On vi January 1661, about 50 5th Monarchists, headed past a vino-cooper named Thomas Venner, tried to gain possession of London in the name of "King Jesus". Most were either killed or taken prisoner; on 19 and 21 Jan 1661, Venner and 10 others were hanged, drawn and quartered for high treason.

Church building of England settlement [edit]

The Church of England was restored equally the national Church in England, backed by the Clarendon Code and the Act of Uniformity 1662. People reportedly "pranced around May poles as a way of taunting the Presbyterians and Independents" and "burned copies of the Solemn League and Covenant".^[18]

Ireland [edit]

"The commonwealth parliamentary spousal relationship was, after 1660, treated as zero and void".^[19] As in England the republic was deemed constitutionally never to have occurred. The Convention Parliament was dissolved by Charles Ii in January 1661, and he summoned his offset parliament in Ireland in May 1661. In 1662, 29 May was made a public holiday.^{[ citation needed ]}

Coote, Broghill and Maurice Eustace were initially the chief political figures in the Restoration. George Monck, Knuckles of Albemarle was given the position of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland but he did not assume office. In 1662 James Butler, 1st Knuckles of Ormonde returned every bit the Lord Lieutenant of Republic of ireland and became the predominant political figure of the Restoration menses.^{[ citation needed ]}

Scotland [edit]

Charles was proclaimed King over again on 14 May 1660. He was not crowned, having been previously crowned at Scone in 1651. The Restoration "presented an occasion of universal celebration and rejoicing throughout Scotland".^[20]

Charles II summoned his parliament on i January 1661, which began to disengage all that been forced on his father Charles I of Scotland. The Rescissory Act 1661 made all legislation back to 1633 'void and null'.^[21]

English Colonies [edit]

Caribbean area [edit]

Barbados, as a haven for refugees fleeing the English republic, had held for Charles II under Lord Willoughby until defeated by George Ayscue. When news reached Barbados of the Rex's restoration, Thomas Modyford declared Barbados for the King in July 1660.^[22] The planters, however, were not eager for the return of the former governor Lord Willoughby, fearing disputes over titles, only the Rex ordered he be restored.^[23]

Jamaica had been a conquest of Oliver Cromwell's and Charles II's claim to the island was therefore questionable. However, Charles Two chose not to restore Jamaica to Espana and in 1661 information technology became a British colony and the planters would claim that they held rights as Englishmen past the King's supposition of the rule of Jamaica.^[24] The offset governor was Lord Windsor. He was replaced in 1664 by Thomas Modyford who had been ousted from Barbados.^{[ citation needed ]}

N America [edit]

New England, with its Puritan settlement, had supported the Republic and the Protectorate. Acceptance of the Restoration was reluctant in some quarters equally it highlighted the failure of puritan reform.^[25] Rhode Isle alleged in October 1660 and Massachusetts lastly in Baronial 1661.^[26] New Oasis provided refuge for Regicides such as Edward Whalley, William Goffe and John Dixwell and would exist subsequently merged into Connecticut in 1662, perhaps in punishment.^[27] John Winthrop, a former governor of Connecticut, and one of whose sons had been a captain in Monck's regular army, went to England at the Restoration and in 1662 obtained a Regal Charter for Connecticut with New Oasis annexed to it.^{[ citation needed ]}

Maryland had resisted the democracy until finally occupied past New England Puritans/Parliamentary forces afterward the Boxing of the Severn in 1655. In 1660 the Governor Josias Fendall tried to plow Maryland into a Commonwealth of its own in what is known equally Fendall's Rebellion but with the fall of the republic in England he was left without back up and was replaced by Philip Calvert upon the Restoration.^{[ citation needed ]}

Virginia was the most loyal of King Charles 2's dominions. It had, according to the eighteenth-century historian Robert Beverley Jr., been "the last of all the King's Dominions that submitted to the Usurpation".^[28] Virginia had provided sanctuary for Cavaliers fleeing the English republic. In 1650, Virginia was one of the Royalist colonies that became the subject of Parliaments An Act for prohibiting Merchandise with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego. William Berkeley, who had previously been governor up until 1652, was elected governor in 1660 past the Firm of Burgesses and he promptly declared for the King. The Anglican Church was restored as the established church.^{[ commendation needed ]}

The Somers Isles, allonym Bermuda (originally named Virgineola), was originally role of Virginia, and was administered by the Somers Isles Company, a spin-off of the Virginia Visitor, until 1684. The already existing contest between the mostly Parliamentarian Adventurers (shareholders) of the visitor in England and the Bermudians, who had their ain House of Assembly (and many of whom were becoming landowners every bit they were sold the land they had previously farmed as tenants as the profitability of the tobacco farmed exclusively for the visitor fell), placed the Bermudians on the side of the Crown despite the big number of Puritans in the colony.

Bermudians were attempting to shift their economy from tobacco to a maritime i and were being thwarted past the company, which relied on acquirement from tobacco tillage. Bermuda was the starting time colony to recognise Charles Ii equally King in 1649. It controlled its own "army" (of militia) and deposed the Company appointed Governor, electing a replacement. Its Independent Puritans were forced to immigrate, settling the Bahamas under prominent Bermudian settler, erstwhile Governor of Bermuda, and Parliamentary loyalist William Sayle as the Eleutheran Adventurers. Although eventually reaching a compromise with the Commonwealth, the Bermudians dispute with the company continued and was finally taken earlier the restored Crown, which was groovy for an opportunity to re-assert its authority over the wealthy businessmen who controlled the Somers Isles Company.

The islanders' protest to the Crown initially concerned the mis-handling of Perient Trott and his heirs (including Nicholas Trott), simply expanded to include the company'south wider mismanagement of the colony. This led to a lengthy courtroom instance in which the Crown championed Bermudians confronting the company, and resulted in the company'due south Royal Charter existence revoked in 1684. From that betoken onwards the Crown assumed responsibility for appointing the Colony'south governors (information technology first re-appointed the last company governor). Freed of the visitor'due south restraints, the emerging local merchant class came to boss and shape Bermuda'southward progress, as Bermudians abandoned agriculture en masse and turned to seafaring.

In 1663 the Province of Carolina was formed as a reward given to some supporters of the Restoration. The province was named after the King'southward father, Charles I.^{[ commendation needed ]} The boondocks of Charleston was established in 1669 by a party of settlers from Bermuda (some being Bermudians aboard Bermudian vessels, others having passed through Bermuda from as far as England) nether the same William Sayle who had led the Eleutheran Adventurers to the Bahamas. In 1670, Sayle became the first Colonial Governor of the Province of Carolina.

Culture [edit]

The Restoration and Charles' coronation marking a reversal of the stringent Puritan morality, "as though the pendulum [of England'southward morality] swung from repression to licence more or less overnight".^[29] Theatres reopened afterward having been airtight during the protectorship, Puritanism lost its momentum, and bawdy comedy became a recognisable genre. In improver, women were allowed to perform on the commercial stage equally professional actresses for the first time. In Scotland, the bishops returned equally the Episcopacy was reinstated.

To celebrate the occasion and cement their diplomatic relations, the Dutch Republic presented Charles with the Dutch Gift, a fine collection of old main paintings, classical sculptures, furniture, and a yacht.

Literature [edit]

Restoration literature includes the roughly homogenous styles of literature that centre on a celebration of or reaction to the restored court of King Charles II. It is a literature that includes extremes, for it encompasses both Paradise Lost and the John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester's Sodom, the high-spirited sexual comedy of The Country Wife and the moral wisdom of The Pilgrim's Progress. Information technology saw Locke'due south Treatises of Regime, the founding of the Royal Order, the experiments and holy meditations of Robert Boyle, the hysterical attacks on theatres from Jeremy Collier, and the pioneering of literary criticism from John Dryden and John Dennis. The menstruation witnessed news go a commodity, the essay develop into a journal art form, and the beginnings of textual criticism.^[30]

Mode [edit]

The render of the king and his court from exile led to the replacement of the Puritan severity of the Cromwellian style with a gustation for magnificence and opulence and to the introduction of Dutch and French artistic influences. These are evident in article of furniture in the utilise of floral marquetry, walnut instead of oak, twisted turned supports and legs, exotic veneers, cane seats and backs on chairs, sumptuous tapestry and velvet upholstery and ornate carved and gilded scrolling bases for cabinets.^[31] Similar shifts appear in prose way.^[32]

Comedy [edit]

One-act, especially earthy one-act, flourished, and a favourite setting was the bed-chamber.^[33] Indeed, sexually explicit language was encouraged by the king personally and by the rakish style of his court. Historian George Norman Clark argues:

The best-known fact about the Restoration drama is that it is immoral. The dramatists did not criticize the accustomed morality well-nigh gambling, drink, love, and pleasure generally, or try, like the dramatists of our ain time, to work out their own view of character and deport. What they did was, according to their respective inclinations, to mock at all restraints. Some were gross, others delicately improper....The dramatists did not merely say annihilation they liked: they also intended to glory in it and to shock those who did not like it.^[34]

The socially diverse audiences included both aristocrats, their servants and hangers-on, and a substantial middle-class segment.^[35] These playgoers were attracted to the comedies by upward-to-the-minute topical writing, by crowded and humming plots, past the introduction of the first professional actresses, and by the rise of the first glory actors. This period saw the first professional female playwright, Aphra Behn.^[36]

Spectacular [edit]

The Restoration spectacular, or elaborately staged machine play, striking the London public phase in the late 17th-century Restoration menstruation, enthralling audiences with action, music, trip the light fantastic, moveable scenery baroque illusionistic painting, gorgeous costumes, and special furnishings such as trapdoor tricks, "flying" actors, and fireworks. These shows accept ever had a bad reputation as a vulgar and commercial threat to the witty, "legitimate" Restoration drama; notwithstanding, they drew Londoners in unprecedented numbers and left them dazzled and delighted.^[37]

Basically dwelling-grown and with roots in the early 17th-century courtroom masque, though never ashamed of borrowing ideas and stage technology from French opera, the spectaculars are sometimes called "English opera". However, the diverseness of them is so untidy that nigh theatre historians despair of defining them as a genre at all.^[38] Just a handful of works of this period are usually accorded the term "opera", as the musical dimension of near of them is subordinate to the visual. Information technology was spectacle and scenery that drew in the crowds, equally shown by many comments in the diary of the theatre-lover Samuel Pepys.^[39]

The expense of mounting ever more elaborate breathtaking productions drove the ii competing theatre companies into a dangerous spiral of huge expenditure and correspondingly huge losses or profits. A fiasco such every bit John Dryden's Albion and Albanius would leave a company in serious debt, while blockbusters like Thomas Shadwell'southward Psyche or Dryden's Rex Arthur would put it comfortably in the black for a long time.^[40]

Cease of the Restoration [edit]

The Glorious Revolution ended the Restoration. The Glorious Revolution which overthrew King James 2 of England was propelled by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William Iii of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). William'due south successful invasion of England with a Dutch fleet and army led to his accretion to the English throne every bit William Three of England jointly with his married woman Mary II of England, James' daughter.^[41]

In April 1688, James had re-issued the Announcement of Indulgence and ordered all Anglican clergymen to read information technology to their congregations. When 7 bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, submitted a petition requesting the reconsideration of the King'due south religious policies, they were arrested and tried for seditious libel. On thirty June 1688, a group of seven Protestant nobles invited the Prince of Orange to come up to England with an army. By September information technology became clear that William would invade England.^[42]

When William arrived on 5 November 1688, James lost his nerve, declined to attack the invading Dutch and tried to flee to France. He was captured in Kent. Later, he was released and placed under Dutch protective guard. Having no desire to make James a martyr, William, Prince of Orange, let him escape on 23 December. James was received in French republic by his cousin and marry, Louis Xiv, who offered him a palace and a pension.^[42]

William convened a Convention Parliament to decide how to handle the situation. While the Parliament refused to depose James, they alleged that James, having fled to France had effectively abdicated the throne, and that the throne was vacant. To make full this vacancy, James's daughter Mary was alleged Queen; she was to dominion jointly with her hubby William, Prince of Orange, who would be king. The English Parliament passed the Bill of Rights of 1689 that denounced James for abusing his ability.^[43]

The abuses charged to James included the suspension of the Test Acts, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the crown, the institution of a standing ground forces, and the imposition of cruel punishments. The neb also declared that henceforth no Roman Catholic was permitted to ascend the English language throne, nor could any English language monarch ally a Roman Catholic.^[43]

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Cromwell had intended to make Bulstrode Whitelocke a viscount merely it is not clear if he so before he died

1. ^ CEE staff 2007, Restoration.
2. ^ EB staff 2012, Restoration.
3. ^ Yadav 2010.
4. ^ ^{a b} Chisholm 1911a, p. 108.
5. ^ Firth 1892, p. 10.
6. ^ Hugh Trevor-Roper Nifty Tew Circle
7. ^ Business firm of Eatables 1802a.
8. ^ Harris 2005, p. 47.
9. ^ ^{a b} Pepys Diary 23 Apr 1661.
10. ^ Firm of Commons 1802b.
11. ^ Jones 1978, p. 15.
12. ^ Wallace, David C. (four July 2013). Twenty-Two Turbulent Years 1639 - 1661. Fast-Print Publishing. ISBN978-one-78035-660-0.
13. ^ Clark 1953, p. three.
14. ^ Chisholm 1911b, p. 470.
15. ^ Weight & Haggith 2014, pp. eighteen–21.
16. ^ McIntosh 1982, pp. 195–216.
17. ^ Dakers, Caroline (sixteen May 2018). Fonthill Recovered: A Cultural History. UCL Press. ISBN978-1-78735-047-2.
18. ^ Harris 2005, pp. 52–53.
19. ^ EB15, p. 1012. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEB15 (help)
20. ^ Jackson 2003, p. 14.
21. ^ Jackson 2003, p. 78.
22. ^ Higham 1921, p. ten.
23. ^ Higham 1921, pp. 12–14.
24. ^ Monteith & Richards 2001, pp. 36–39.
25. ^ Bremers 1995, pp. 151–153.
26. ^ Middleton 2002, p. 111.
27. ^ Middleton 2002, p. 112.
28. ^ Beverley 1722, p. 51.
29. ^ Bakery 1994, p. 85.
30. ^ James Runcieman Sutherland, Restoration Literature, 1660-1700: Dryden, Bunyan, and Pepys (Clarendon Press, 1969).
31. ^ P. Arakelin, "The Myth of a Restoration Manner Shift", Eighteenth Century, twenty (1979), 227—45.
32. ^ James Egan, "'For mine own private satisfaction': Marvell's aesthetic signatures in the rehearsal Transpros'd." Prose Studies 22.three (1999): 17-forty.
33. ^ Jeremy W. Webster, "In and Out of the Bed-chamber: Staging Libertine Desire in Restoration Comedy". Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies (2012): 77–96.
34. ^ George Clark, The Later Stuarts, 1660–1714 (1956) p 369.
35. ^ Harold Dearest, "Who Were the Restoration Audience?", The Yearbook of English Studies, x (1986), 21-40
36. ^ Bonamy Dobrée, Restoration One-act, 1660–1720 (Oxford UP, 1924) .
37. ^ Lyndsey Bakewell, "Changing scenes and flight machines: re-examination of spectacle and the spectacular in Restoration theatre, 1660–1714" (PhD. Diss. Loughborough University, 2016) online.
38. ^ Robert D. Hume, The Development of English Drama in the Belatedly Seventeenth Century (1976) p. 205
39. ^ Hume, 206–209.
40. ^ Judith Milhous, Thomas Betterton and the Management of Lincoln's Inn Fields 1695–1708 (Southern Illinois Upwards, 1979) pp. 47–48.
41. ^ John Miller, The Glorious Revolution (Routledge, 2014).
42. ^ ^{a b} Tim Harris, "James Ii, the Glorious Revolution, and the destiny of Britain." Historical Periodical 51.3 (2008): 763–775 online.
43. ^ ^{a b} Steven C. A. Pincus, England'south Glorious Revolution 1688-1689: A Brief History with Documents (2005).

References [edit]

• Baker, Roger (1994). Drag: A History of Female Impersonation in the Performing Arts . New York City: NYU Press. p. 85. ISBN978-0-8147-1253-5.
• Beverley, Robert (1722), The History and Present State of Virginia, p. 51 ^{[ full commendation needed ]}
• Bremers, Francis J. (1995), The Puritan Experiment: New England Gild from Bradford to Edwards (Revised ed.), pp. 151–153
• CEE staff (2007). "Restoration". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Columbia University Press. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Lambert, John". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. xvi (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 108, 109.
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Newcastle, Dukes of s.5. William Cavendish". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 470, 471.
• EB staff (2012). "Restoration". Encyclopaedia Britannica (online ed.). Retrieved xv Apr 2012.
• Clark, George (1953). The After Stuarts 1660–1714 (2nd ed.). Oxford University Printing. p. 3.
• Firth, Charles Harding (1892). "Ingoldsby, Richard (d.1685)". In Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 29. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. ix–11.
• Harris, Tim (2005). Restoration:Charles Two and His Kingdoms 1660–1685. Allen Lane.
• Higham, C.S. (1921), The Development of the Leeward Islands under the Restoration 1660–1688, pp. 10, 12–14 ^{[ full commendation needed ]}
• "Business firm of Commons Journal Volume 8: viii May 1660". Journal of the House of Eatables: Book 8, 1660–1667. London: His Majesty's Jotter Office: 16–xviii. 1802a.
• "Business firm of Commons Journal Volume 8: 30 May 1660". Journal of the House of Commons: Book 8, 1660–1667. London: His Majesty's Stationery Role: 49–fifty. 1802b.
• Hutton, Ronald (2000). The British Democracy 1649–1660 (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 121.
• Jackson, Clare (2003), Restoration Scotland, 1660–1690: Royalist Politics, Faith and Ideas, Boydell Press, pp. 14, 78
• Jones, J.R. (1978). Country and Courtroom: England 1658–1714. Edward Arnold. p. fifteen.
• Keeble, N. H. (2002). The Restoration: England in the 1660s. History of Early Modern England Series. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN978-0-631-23617-vii.
• McIntosh, A.Due west. (1982). "The Numbers of the English Regicides". History. 67 (220): 195–216. doi:ten.1111/j.1468-229X.1982.tb01387.ten. JSTOR 24418886.
• Middleton, Richard (2002), Colonial America: a history, 1565-1776 (3rd ed.), Blackwell, pp. 111–112
• Monteith, Kathleen; Richards, Glen, eds. (2001), Jamaica in Slavery and Liberty: History, Heritage and Culture, University of the West Indies Printing, pp. 36–39
• "Tuesday 23 Apr 1661", The Diary of Samuel Pepys, 24 Apr 2004
• Weight, Richard; Haggith, Toby (February 2014). "Reluctant Regicides". History Today. 64 (22): eighteen–21.
• Yadav, Alok (18 July 2010). "Historical Outline of Restoration and 18th-Century British Literature". Retrieved 15 Apr 2012.

Further reading [edit]

• Lockyer, Roger (2004). Tudor and Stuart Britain: 1485–1714 (3rd ed.). ISBN978-0582771888.

External links [edit]

• https://web.archive.org/web/20050707081040/http://world wide web.debretts.co.uk/royal_connections/sovereigns_england_17_century.html
• Review of 'Revolution and Counter-Revolution in England, Republic of ireland and Scotland 1658–60', by Brian Manning
• Chapter V. The Stewart Restoration By Charles Harding Firth
• "The Restoration", BBC Radio four discussion with Marker Goldie, Richard Ollard and Clare Jackson (In Our Time, 15 February 2001)

moricehatted.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Restoration

Share this post